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In this era of heightened awareness of human rights, the title looks like a blasphemy, but bitter truth is often more repugnant than fiction. For instance, presently, a slave costs 1/38th of the price 160 years ago, making the business very profitable with a ROI of 8 times.
Throughout history (and even now, though outside law in almost all the countries) and across cultures, humans have been exploiting their own kind in many forms, the omnibus term for which is slavery. No timeline can be drawn to show its formation, growth and decline because of the diversity of its forms and close relationship with? a human attribute, domination. It can also be argued that there is no decline in sight, at best the practice is standing still, in status quo. It was already there, as an established institution in one of? the earliest written records, the law code of Hammurabi (Mesopotamia, ca 18th century BCE) . Interestingly, one of the roots of the English word "slave" is the medieval Latin sclavus referring to the peoples of? eastern and central Europe, as many of these people had been captured and then sold as slaves. The other roots are: the medieval English sclave, the old French esclave and the early Greek sklabos. Also, there are sklabenoi Slavs of? Slavic origin, which again is similar to the old Russian slovene, the name of an east Slavic tribe. A ?Convention on Slavery held in 1926 ?defined it as? "...the status and/or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised..." It would appear from this definition that slaves cannot leave who supposedly own them, nor can they leave their master or the place where they are held without? an explicit permission to do so. It follows therefore (hypothetically, so to say) that they would be restored to their owners and that they would be returned to their owners should they escape. Thus a system of slavery compared to the isolated instances of bonded or forced labour in any society would require official, legal recognition of ownership, or widespread unrecorded agreements from local authorities by masters who wield some influence because of their social and/or economic status. The first is a situation not exactly tenable at present while the second is possible when the powers that be look the other way. An illustration of this is the recent (2007) press report of? captive brick kiln workers in? the People's Republic of (Communist) China.
According to the International Labour Office (ILO) forced labour is "all work or service which is extracted from any person under the menace of any penalty and for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily". There are, of course, exceptions to this, such as, compulsory military service or conscription, forced labour to which convicted criminals are subjected to, essential services needed by a state during emergencies and community services to be performed by an individual (ordered by the judiciary) for minor infractions of the law. Using their own defining terms, the Internanational Labour Organization insist that all child labour is nothing but forced labour. While that makes sense upto a point (child labour also brings monetary benefits to the family) there are sections of people who use the word slavery in unusual contexts. Using the notion of economic coercion, some anarchists, communists and socialists denounce many forms of employment as wage slavery or economic slavery where employees are paid significantly low wages or given money not enough for sustenance, thus leaving them in perpetually semi-starved conditions. Anarcho-capitalists and libertarians compare taxes imposed by governments on people as tributes extracted from slaves. Likewise, some conscientious objectors to drafting regard compulsory military service as a form of slavery. Not to be left behind are some animal rights activists who argue that the conditions of animals kept by humans are generally not different from those of the slaves. The word serf (as it is presently used) is, however, not the same as slave. It is is so because serfs in the middle ages were believed to possess rights as human beings as opposed to the slaves who had none whatsoever and were considered as things or properties like cattles. Slaves were people owned and controlled by others in a manner which excluded almost all the rights and the freedom of movement. They were not paid for their labour, excepting food, clothing and shelter needed for? survival. In other words, slavery was a systematic exploitation of the work done by and services performed by someone else without consent and payment.
From a socio-economic point of view, slavery is a system depriving an individual of all personal freedom and forcing the person to work or render services without paying for it, and considering the individual as the property or chattel of someone or a household. (Hence the term chattel slave.) From the time of their capture or births to slave parents or purchase from slave marts, they were held against their will and were not free to leave or to refuse work for which they receive no wages. It is for these reasons slaves are also called unfree labourers. As regards? its prevalence in modern times, it is believed that there are currently 27 million people in the world under some form of slavery practiced in secret. As recently as August 2007, Mauritania in western Africa passed a law proclaiming slavery as a criminal act, where nearly 600,000 of? its men, women and children (20 percent of the population) are considered to be bonded labourers if not slaves. A recent study in its neighbouring state of Nigeria revealed that over 800,000 people there or about 8 percent of its population are still slaves.
Trafficking?? in? people
Trafficking in people or human trafficking is yet another form of slavery, and is also known as sex trafficking because most of the victims are women and children who are forced to become prostitutes. It is, however, different from what is called smuggling of people, in which a fee is charged for helping the people to cross the borders of the country they intend to settle down illegally. After that, the people are free to do whatever they want. Not so are the victims of trafficking who remain permanently enslaved. The victims of trafficking are either tricked by the lure of false promises or simply forced to participate. Coercive tactics employed by the traffickers to control their victims include deception, fraud, intimidation, isolation, threat and use of physical force. They also take the advantage of debt bonding and even go to the extent of? force-feeding their victims with drugs of abuse. Besides women and children forced into prostitution, their other victims include men, women and children who are forced to do manual work under hazardous conditions. The numbers of such people trafficked illegally are not known, but a report published in 2003 by the U S Government states that 800,000 to 900,000 people worldwide are taken in this manner across borders each year, not including those who are trafficked within a country.
Economic? models
There have been attempts by economists to create models of economic conditions during which? slavery and its milder forms like serfdom prevail or become moribund, especially in agrarian contexts. It has been found that when land is abundant but labour is not (and freemen demand high wages) slaves are preferred as labourers. If, however, labour is abundant and land is not, then freemen labourers are willing to work for low wages, and landholders prefer to engage them. Under such conditions, slaves are relatively costly due to the expenses for their maintenance and the wages of the supervisors guarding them. In the opinion of the economists, for this reason slavery (and its less harsh version serfdom) gradually decreased in Europe as the population increased. It appeared in the Americas and was reintroduced in Russia when large sparsely populated new land areas were brought under cultivation. Yet another finding is that?
slavery was more common when the work was relatively simple, such as large scale growing of a single crop, and did not require close supervision. For complex tasks, however, it was much more difficult and costly to check that the slaves were carrying out their tasks properly. In view of this, slavery was found to be decreasing with technological advancements which required employment of more skilled people at high wages vis-a-vis the low maintenance cost of slaves. Cultures with institutionalised slavery were thus found to be low in technological advancement, since the emphasis was on increasing the number of slaves and not on finding new methods of? production or new sources of energy. It was for this reason a wide gap separated theoretical knowledge and learning from physical labor and manufacturing in ancient Greek and Roman cultures.
From 1945 and in the 1960s and 70s, known as the development decades especially, economists debated over issues concerning the relationship between unfree labour and capitalist production. In the Indian context, the discussion mainly dealt with the agrarian transition that was going on at that time, and the role of unfree labour therein. Stated simply, unfree labour is the modern term (or euphemism) for slavery. Unlike slaves of yore, they are not the people of a vanquished state nor prisoners of war, but their plight is just the same. Such people are employed against their will by the threat of destitution, detention, violence (including death), or other extreme hardship to themselves, or to members of their families. The term forced labour can also be used to describe these camiseta méxico forms of employment, but usually violence is the coercive element there. Strictly speaking, serfdom is also a form of unfree labour, but usually applied to pre-industrial, feudal societies. In the sphere of political economy, this debate on who among the labourers is or is not unfree is going on for long and has actually not been resolved so far. The Latin American peon, the Indian bonded labour, the indentured Fijian-Indian, etc. were past examples of unfree labour. Advocacy groups apart (who place the numbers worldwide between 27 to 200 million), a section camiseta de barcelona 2011 of political economists contend that the number of the unfree in capitalist forms of production is considerable.
Then there are the disposable people, exemplified by the victims of the holocaust over half a century ago. The Nazis in Germany during 1933-45 created labour camps for the Jews to work while keeping them in starvation, and sent them to gas chambers when they could not work anymore. Before that, labour camps were established in Russia in 1930 which continued upto the late 50s (according to some, the camps or gulags were set up earlier still by Lenin). Compared to the holocaust, the social history of which has been studied exhaustively, not much is available on the social history of the gulags. There also unreachable production targets, little food and harsh living conditions finished off nearly eighty percent of the inmates, who were found disposable not because what they had done but because who they were. Their present-day counterparts are the AIDS-affected prostitutes (though not on the same scale) left to die when they could earn no more as also people working under hazardous conditions in mines.
Evolution? of? slavery
Humans had been keeping slaves even before they learned to write, to say nothing of the practice of? forcing captive women into sexual services. Generally, slaves were captured in wars? by the winners or spirited away in isolated raids. Also, there were occassions when parents sold their children to slavery due to extreme poverty or such other compulsion. It would appear that in ancient times quite a lot of slaves were born of slave parents. The parents were in turn captives from some past war. Such wars resulted in slavery for prisoners and their families who were either killed, exchanged for money or sold as slaves. They were considered as rewards of the war and as properties of their captors. Thus, as a commodity of trade, slaves were sold or bartered in exchange for other goods. Apparently, it was a kind act to let them live instead of killing them outright, but the consequence was that particularly weak and vulnerable groups became more and more enslaved. People taken into slavery in this manner sometimes differed from their captors by race, religion, nationality or ethnic origins, but quite often they were the same as their enslavers in these respects. It was quite likely for a dominant group in an area to take captives and turn them into slaves with little fear of suffering the same fate; but such a possibility was always there in time to come due to reversals of fortune. Seneca the Younger pointed out this to the Romans when their empire was at the peak of its glory and added that when various powerful nations fight amongst themselves anyone might find himself enslaved. It was so because all that was needed to kidnap an individual (otherwise secure from warfare) was a forceful raid of short duration. In his Confession, Saint Patrick narrated how he was kidnapped by pirates, and the Hebrew Bible says that Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers along with the cautionary passage :
"And as often as you reflect how much power you have over a slave, remember that your master has just as much power over you. "But I have no master," you say. You are still young; perhaps you will have one. Do you not know at what age Hecuba entered captivity, or Croesus, or Plato, or Diogenes?
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The causes due to which the population of ancient societies ended up as slaves were mainly incessant wars and the resulting lawlessness. Conditions for the development of such situations were overpopulation leading to widespread famines. Then, such societies were normally underdeveloped in a cultural and technological sense, and were easily conquered by those who were superior to them in this regard.? The proces is still going camiseta italia on in Africa, where the illegal slave trade turns into slaves rural people after forcing them to move to cities, or purchase them? in rural areas and sell them into slavery in cities. It happens due to population increases, thefts of land and loss of even the subsistence level agriculture the people were carrying out earlier.?????
A feature of the legal systems of ancient societies was that persons (often including their family) convicted of serious crimes could be sold into slavery, and the proceeds from such transactions? were generally handed over to the victims as compensation. King Hammurabi (~ 1800 BCE)proclaimed in his Codes of Law that if someone looking after a dam failed to do his job properly, the cost of the property damaged due to the resulting flood should be recovered from him. If? his property was not enough for the damage done, then he should be sold as a slave to makeup the shortfall. For other crimes the laws pescribed enslavement of the perpetrator, and?????????????? some laws even required that the criminal and all his property be handed over to his victim. There was also the system of selling a person as a slave so as to pay off the debts he incurred, and if the loaned amount was large his family was included to square the deal. It was not uncommon for parents to sell their children into slavery during famine; not for the price, but to save the kids from death by starvation. Generally, in institutionalised slavery,? children born to slave parents were considered property of their owners. In some cultures, the status of the mother or father was the defining element for the child, but mostly the status of the mother was considered important. It was possible in some cultures for a slave to earn his freedom by hard work and good behaviour, a reward denied in others
Tasks? set? for? the? slaves
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Work done by the slaves depended on the historical time period and the geographical position of the place of their slavery. Usually, they were assigned work similar to that carried out by the supporting members (lower rungs) of the society which held them as slaves.? They, however, received no wages for their labour excepting the bare necessities like food, shelter snd clothing. Normally, they were employed as domestic helps, agricultural labourers, mine workers, army recruits, and commercial and industrial workers. Around the middle ages, it was customary for the rich people in Europe to keep four-five female slaves and their children for household work.???????????????????????? In some places such chattels (as they were commonly known) were required cook, clean, as also to draw water from wells or outside water sources. Grinding corns was also a part of their work, in which along with other works they were assisted by outside hired helps. Slaves, however, were mostly engaged in agricultural work or cultivation from antiquity to the middle of the nineteenth century when slavery was supposedly abolished. They were required to work for long hours in the fields, with hardly any recess for rest, water or food. As they were regarded as valuable property, slave-owners usually ensured that they were not worked beyond endurance and gave them food, shelter and clothing to keep them in reasonable good health.
Thanks to the otherwise tiring work regime, they were generally of robust health except for the seasonal afflictions or the unforeseen epidemics. In plantations or estates with absentee landlords, the overseers were not so well disposed to the slaves and often worked them to death. Most of the slave mineworkers were males. They worked in the salt mines to extract salt, a predominant commodity of trade in the 19th century. In ancient times, chattel slaves were trained to fight in their nation's army and other military services. Such slaves were also trained as artisans in workshops for commercial and industrial purposes.? Generally, the men worked as metalworkers while the females were engaged in textile trades or did household work. Very rarely did the owners paid the chattels for their work excepting free board, room and clothing.?
It was a long established practice of Arab traders to abduct women slaves from Africa, and to sell them into prostitution or concubinage in Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms. Normally, women slaves were sold at a price lower tha the males. The exceptions were Irish women captured by the Vikings during their raids in the north and sold in the Middle East during 800-1200 CE.